Stone Artifacts and Pre-historical Cultural Study By FU Xianguo
Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Science

8 July 2006

I. Stone Artifacts and Pre-historical culture

1. Stone Artifacts
   
   Stone artifacts, as suggested by the name, are man-made objects of stone including tools, weapons, wares, ornaments etc.
   
   Stone tools are one of the earliest man-made implements in archaeology that can still be seen today. They are the largest group among stone artifacts, and also one of the most important objects of study. For a considerable period of time, stone tools played a dominant role in the production activities and life of humans.
   
   Stone tools can be classified as chipped and ground artifacts according to the methods of manufacture. In the course of time, artifacts underwent significant changes in term of technology and morphology. Hence the technological and morphological features of stone artifacts have become the benchmark for determining the age or cultural nature of an archaeological sit.
   
   
2. Pre-historical age and its classification
   
   In archaeology, the period dominated by the use of stone artifacts is named the "Stone Age", which started about two to three million years ago. The Stone Age was divided into Paleolithic Period and the Neolithic Period. In Europe, a transitional period called Mesolithic era was further identified between the two periods.
   
   The technology and topology of stone artifacts of different periods and cultures vary from each other. The stone artifact's impact on production still played a crucial role even up till the Bronze Age.

1. Stone artifacts and human origin and evolution
   
   Where do humans come from? According to the archaeological and paleoanthropological studies, generally speaking, about seven to four million years ago, in Africa there were certain species of apes whose bore dental and skeletal resemblances to the modern humans and therefore they were regarded as their ancient ancestors.
   
   Some members of the abovementioned apes evolved into Homo habilis in Africa about two million years ago. It was followed by the rise of Homo erectus approximately one million years ago; some members of Homo erectus evolved into archaic Homo sapiens roughly 300 thousand years ago or later; of this group, some members like Homo sapiens neanderthalensis became extinct afterwards, while others further evolved into Homo sapiens sapiens, i.e. you and me.
   
   According to the now available archaeological data, Homo sapiens sapiens, as a species, might emerge in circa 200 million years ago in Africa, and gradually appeared in the Middle East, Asia and Europe during the modern age.
   
   Why is Australopithecus called apes, while Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Homo sapiens and Homo sapiens sapiens are classified under the genus Homo? What is the difference between apes and humans, or animals and humans? The scientific discoveries indicated that about 2.5 million years ago, Homo habilis was able to make stone tools of a certain shape. The ability to consciously and systematically make tools is considered to be the fundamental difference between humans and other animals. In other words, the difference of humans from other animals lies in the fact that humans are toolmakers.
   
   So how did humans evolve? How did they evolve from small-brain (the brain volume of Homo habilis is about 500 to 650 ml while that of chimpanzees of modern apes is 285 to 500 ml) creatures evolved into modern humans with their brain size more than doubled (modern humans have a brain volume of 1350 to 1450 ml ) and their hands able to make a variety of tools? In recent years, American scientists such as Stout conducted integrated medical and archaeological research and found that prior to the making of tools, the humans needed to have a plan about the shape and production process of the tool; in the course of tool taking, they had to make adjustment to the premeditated shape of the tool so as to produce the suitable stone implement. The process involves the virtual image thinking, advance planning, complex graphic and 3 dimensional analysis, and the control of mind over body, especially the mobility of the hands. Since Modern Man is well developed in these abilities, Mr Stout and his peers concluded that the making of tools had a crucial role in evolution of the human brain and limbs.
   
   In such connections, the making of tools is crucial to the evolution of humans as a species. Though in addition to stone, ancient humans might make tools out of wood, bamboo, leather and animal bones, which are more malleable. But organic tools are usually harder to preserve. So the durability of stone tools enables them to be one of our valuable objects of study on human origin and evolution.
   
   
2. Stone tools and pre-historical cultural development
   
   What differs man from other creatures? During the past millions of years, the climate, environment and resources of the earth changed profoundly. Many creatures originated in the same period with Australopithecus and Homo erectus are extinct, and why did the humans, as a fangless, awful-at-running, flightless and non-aquatic being, turn out to be the winner of the competition for survival despite the changing environment and keep on thriving? In short, what enabled humans to overcome the Nature, and survive up to now? The consensus of archaeologists and scholars of other disciplines is that humans is the creator of culture.
   
   The interpretation of "culture" herein extends beyond literature, art, music and dance. It refers to the entire lifestyle of the human society, including technical instruments, mode of economy, social structure and awareness, beliefs etc. Through making of tools, organized economic activities and social organizations, humans managed to successful adapt to changes of the natural environment and thrive on with their collective effort.
   
   In the development of human culture, in particular the period prior to the emergence of metal tools, stone artifacts had been their major tools. Assuming humans had a history of about six million years (including their ancestors such as Australopithecus), the rise of metal tools took place only about 5 000 years ago. Prior to this period, humans had been using stone artifacts and other organic tools for survival and development. It is argued that, without stone tools, there would not have been any humans, not to mention any modern tools.
   
   The development of stone tools comprises several stages: each major change to stone tools was closely related to the important events in development of human culture, and therefore they were used as symbols for the stages of development.
   
   
   • From the age of Homo habilis 2.5 million years ago to the age of Homo sapiens sapiens 10 000 years ago, stone tools were made by chipping. The products were chipped lithic artifacts. Humans of this period mainly rely on hunting and collection for living, and the period is called "Paleolithic Period". During this period, humans in various regions made a variety of stone artifacts. By late Paleolithic Period, they even created some elegant artworks like painting and sculptures. Hence stone tools were not only used by for ancient humans for survival but also display of their creativity. Stone artifacts made by different communities at different regions bear testimony to the various ways of human's adaptation to the natural environments and pluralistic development of their culture.
     
     
   • Approximately 10 000 years ago, processing of stone artifacts by grinding arose in Asia (first in the Middle East and East Asia) and Oceania; similar technology emerged in Europe and elsewhere gradually afterwards. Ground stone tools were more standardized and efficient. It was a major transformation of the manufacture technology of stone tools. In 1865, John Lubbock, a British, named the ground lithic artifacts "Neolithic" tools. In some regions of the "Old World" (Africa, Europe and Asia), Neolithic Age usually began with the period when agriculture was introduced and people started to settle down and make potteries.
     
     
   • After the introduction of agriculture, stone tools such as sickles and spades became major agricultural tools and stone net sinkers and arrowheads became important fishing and hunting instruments. Ground stone axes were used to chop trees and stone adzes were used to build houses and ships, resulting in further improvement of living quality. The introduction and development of agriculture increased the food supply and led to population growth. Gradually the wealth gap and division of labour arose, with professionals working as craftsmen and ceremony holders. Evidence is found in certain stone artifacts for religious ceremonies like multi-edge stone knives in Mexico. Finally emerged the states as political bodies of human society in various parts of the world. The series of changes laid the foundation of the ensuing industrial revolution and modernization. This period had a momentous impact on the development of humun culture, and was called "Neolithic revolution" by Childe, a British archaeologist.
     
     
   • The archaeological data now available shows that smelting of bronze originated in today's southern Russia about 5 500 years ago. The technology was later found in Middle East, Indus and Yellow River Deltas. And the people of these areas entered the historical period. Afterwards in many parts of the world, the dominant role of stone artifacts as human's tools was taken over by metal implements. However in Africa, Asia and Oceania, there were still societies using stone artifacts as their major tools.

1. Morphology and topology
   By observing the topological, stylish and technical characteristics of the stone artifacts, we can classify artifacts excavated from different regions for examination with a view to studying the evolvement and variations of human culture.
   
   
2. Functional study and archaeological experiments
   The emphasis is on the examination of the use-wear of the artifacts. The fundamental steps are as follows: identify the types and raw materials of the artifacts, find out the same kind of raw materials to produce artifacts of similar features (replicas), apply the replicas to different objects, observe under the microscope various wear and tear and marks on the replicas after use, and compare the findings with the artifacts excavated to establish the manufacturing process and functions. Such a process will cast light on the craftsmanship, technology, production activities and thinking patterns of ancient people. Besides, thanks to the natural scientific technology emerged since the 1980's, analysis on the residues like amylum, plant and animal remnants on the surface of the artifacts can enhance our understanding towards the functions of stone artifacts and the development and evolvement of ancient human culture.
   
   
3. Ethnoarchaeology
   Through observing communities still using stone artifacts in modern times and collecting cultural data including manufacture and use of stone artifacts, we will further understand, among other things, the manufacturing process, craftsmanship and functions of the stone artifacts.

• Stone artifacts played a key role in the human evolvement.
• Stone artifacts are the essential objects for our study and understanding of the development of human culture.
• In the modern society, the functionality of stone artifacts is diminishing. However, as one of the tangible heritage of humanity passed down by ancient people, stone artifacts still have their merits in education and study.